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WHAT HAPPENED BEFORE THE BIG BANG? by Michio Kaku
The Latest "Theory of Everything" Suggests That Our Universe Is but One of Many Universes Existing in a Larger Multiverse.      What's the farthest object in the universe?      I was sometimes asked that age-old question during a 15-city lecture tour for my book, HYPERSPACE.      I pointed out that with the naked eye, one can easily see out to hundreds, or even thousands of light-years, the distance to the flickering stars making up the dazzling firmament on a clear night.      With a pair of binoculars turned on the Milky Way itself, a dim white haze becomes a brilliant sheet of stars lying tens of thousands of light-years away.      With the world's most powerful telescopes, you can detect the very distant quasars. Because of their enormous redshifts, we estimate that they lie billions of light-years away, close to the very edge of the visible universe.      At even farther distances, we are peering into creation itself. In 1992 the COBE satellite allowed astronomers to carry out detailed measurements on the echo of creation, the 3-degree microwave radiation that uniformly fills the universe. This ancient, relic radiation, older than the stars themselves, dates back to just 300,000 years after the big bang, which took place perhaps 10 to 20 billion years ago.      Without fail, however, someone in the audience would then ask the innocent-sounding question, "But professor, what happened BEFORE the big bang?"      At this point, I usually detected a faint, satisfied smirk developing on the faces of a few people in the audience, as if they had finally stumped the lecturer. I knew that they expected me to throw up my hands, gaze glassy-eyed into the heavens, and sigh philosophically, "We scientists just don't know. We don't even have a clue. It's one of the great unanswered mysteries of nature. Perhaps we'll never know."      Actually, I saw a lot of startled faces when I replied, "I'm glad you asked, because that is the subject of today's lecture. Today, we will discuss what probably happened before creation. Analyzing this question is what I do for a living."      A NEW SCIENCE IS BORN      What catches them off guard is that in the leading physics laboratories around the world, the universe before the big bang has become one of the hottest areas of research. There is a tangible air of excitement as we witness the birth of a new science called quantum cosmology. Although there is no experimental proof for quantum cosmology, the theory is so compelling and beautiful that it has become the center of intense research. Already, the theory has forced us, almost against our will, to confront the bizarre possibilities of parallel universes, wormholes, and the 10th dimension. Many physicists are leaping into this game, following the lead of such pioneers as Stephen Hawking and Nobel laureate Murray Gell-Mann.      At first, "quantum cosmology" appears to be a contradiction in terms, like "jumbo shrimp." After all, cosmology is based on Einstein's general theory of relativity, a theory of gravity. Physicists use general relativity to describe the expanding universe, which can be compared to a smooth balloon being inflated by a child, with trillions of tiny galaxies sprinkled on the surface like star dust. By contrast, the quantum theory refers to the subatomic world, populated by thousands of strange denizens such as electrons, protons, quarks, and possibly superstrings.      Like oil and water, general relativity and the quantum theory don't mix. For example, they take precisely opposite strategies in describing gravity. General relativity views gravity emerging from the warping of the continuous, smooth fabric of space-time, while the quantum theory sees gravity emerging by the exchange of tiny packets of energy called gravitons.      For the past 50 years a cold war has existed between general relativity and quantum theory; each theory has developed independently of the other, and each has had unparalleled success as long as it has stayed within its domain. However, the two theories must necessarily collide at the instant of the big bang, when gravitational forces and temperatures were so fierce that even particles would have been ripped apart. At these energies, Einstein's theory becomes useless and the quantum theory takes over. Quantum effects overwhelm general relativity at a temperature of 10 to the power of 32 kelvins, which is a trillion trillion times hotter than the center of a hydrogen bomb explosion.      In other words, the secret of the big bang's origin lies with merging the two theories into a higher one, a theory of everything that includes both theories. Physicists need a quantum theory of gravity that simultaneously describes both the subatomic quantum world and the structure of the universe. And this shotgun marriage of general relativity and the quantum theory is spawning even more bizarre progeny, such as parallel universes and hyperspace.      PARALLEL UNIVERSES      One of the principles of quantum cosmology is that we must treat the universe just like we treat a quantum particle, and the simplest particle is the electron. As students learn in chemistry class, we never know for certain which energy level an electron occupies; quantum fluctuations are always bouncing an electron into various energy levels simultaneously. Similarly, once we treat the universe like an electron, then we are forced to conclude that the universe can exist in several different states simultaneously, i.e. parallel universes.      The simplest analogy is boiling water, which is a quantum effect. Tiny bubbles constantly form in the water and then expand very rapidly. If we treat the universe like a bubble, then we see that our universe coexists with a sea of other bubbles. Our universe, then, may be nothing but a quantum bubble, the result of a quantum fluctuation in an infinite ocean frothing with universes. In this infinite ocean, called the multiverse, the vacuum is constantly spawning new universes. In this picture, big bangs constantly take place, each representing a quantum fluctuation in the vacuum.      Creating universes out of nothing may seem to violate cherished conservation principles, until we realize that it takes no energy to create a universe. If the universe is closed like a bubble, then the energy content of its matter is positive, while the energy of its gravity is negative: The sum is exactly zero (because it requires positive energy to lift an object out of a gravitational well, the object's gravitational energy is negative). Thus it takes no net energy to create new bubbles, which are constantly being created in the sea of nothing. Universes are for free.      This doesn't help if you want to create a universe in the laboratory. As Alan Guth, originator of the inflationary universe, has pointed out, you would have to heat up matter to 1,000 trillion trillion degrees to create a baby universe in your basement. (The net energy of this system, however, might still be zero, since the positive energy concentrated in your basement in turn generates a large gravitational field which surrounds the system, whose energy is negative.)      Andrei Linde of Stanford University, one of the pioneers of the inflationary universe, believes that these bubbles are constantly churning and peeling off other bubbles. In the cover article for the November 1994 issue of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, he wrote, "If my colleagues and I are right, we may soon be saying goodbye to the idea that our universe was a single fireball created in the big bang."      This new picture of cosmology creates a new twist on religious mythology. In theology, most myths concerning the origin of the universe fall into one of two categories: the Judeo-Christian myth of Genesis, which describes a definite instant called creation, or the Hindu-Buddhist myth of Nirvana, which describes an endless universe that has no beginning in time or space. In this new picture, we combine these two mythologies into one coherent picture: We have a constant genesis, or boiling of universes, in an ocean of cosmic nothing or Nirvana.      LIFE IN A PARALLEL UNIVERSE      I was once involved in a discussion with Nobel laureate Steve Weinberg. When I mentioned this picture of millions of big bangs constantly emerging from nothing, Weinberg said, "I find this an attractive picture and [it's] certainly worth thinking about very seriously. An important implication is that there wasn't a beginning; that there were increasingly larger big bangs, so that the [multiverse] goes on forever--one doesn't have to grapple with the question of it before the bang. The [multiverse] has just been here all along. I find that a very satisfying picture."      Weinberg cautioned, however, that there may not be life in these other universes. Most of them, in fact, are probably dead universes, where the proton lifetime is less than, say, 10 billion years, the minimum time necessary to create stable organic chemicals, DNA, and life itself. This is because physicists find it difficult to construct theories in which protons have lifetimes long enough to create the chemicals for life. These other universes may be lifeless seas of neutrinos, photons, and electrons, incapable of combining to form life. Our universe, in fact, may be one of the few universes that are compatible with life.      This compelling picture of creation emerging from quantum cosmology may also solve the curious puzzle of the anthropic principle. Physicists have long observed the remarkable coincidence that the fundamental constants of the universe fall within an exceedingly narrow band that is compatible with life. Is life, therefore, a special property of the universe? As Freeman Dyson of the Institute for Advanced Study has said, "It's as if the universe was expecting us." For example, if the electric charge or the gravitational constant were changed slightly, then stable DNA molecules would not be possible. The strong anthropic principle, in fact, concludes that this proves the existence of a divine entity or God.      In quantum cosmology, however, we have a simple explanation: Perhaps there are an infinite number of possible universes, with different physical constants. We just happen to live in the one that is compatible with life. That explains why we are here to discuss the question in the first place. So it is not an accident at all that the physical constants are compatible with life; we coexist with plenty of dead universes where the physical constants are incompatible with stable DNA-type molecules.      But if most of the universes are dead, this raises the ticklish question of whether some of the universes might look just like ours. Some of them, in fact, may be carbon copies of our own universe, except with a tiny quantum twist.      There is the story of a Russian physicist visiting the United States for the first time, asking to be taken to Las Vegas. Considering him to be a seasoned gambler, his American hosts were curious to learn what his gambling strategy might be. The Russian said that he would put all his money, every penny, on the first bet. But, his hosts protested, "That's a ridiculous strategy." "Yes," he replied, "but in one parallel universe, I shall be rich beyond my wildest imagination!"      Strange, but perhaps true. In millions of other universes, however, he will be broke.      This raises another delicate question: Can we visit these parallel universes? Can we walk down Main Street one day, only to find a hole in space emerging in front of us, leading us to another dimension or universe, like some episode of the "Twilight Zone?" Or can we wake up one morning finding ourselves in a world where our loved ones never heard of us?      This is not an idle question; Stephen Hawking visualizes our universe as being connected by a vast, infinite network of invisible threads with all the other bubble universes. This web connecting these universes consists of wormholes, which are tunnels or gateways in space itself (see "Of Wormholes, Time Machines, and Paradoxes," February 1996).      So in principle, the answer is yes, wormholes connect our universe with others. But don't worry about falling into one. After performing a rough back-of-the-envelope estimate of the probability of such an event, I found that it won't happen within the lifetime of the known universe.      THE 10TH DIMENSION      An important defect remains, however, in this picture. Once we try to mathematically calculate the quantum fluctuations that give rise to new universes, the answer blows up, in other words, the theory becomes meaningless. Simply splicing Einstein's general theory of relativity with the quantum theory is too crude. The problem of constructing a true, rigorous quantum theory of gravity--a unification of quantum theory with general relativity--has frustrated the finest minds of the 20th century, including Einstein.      Once, Nobel laureate Wolfgang Pauli presented his proposal for a theory of everything while Niels Bohr was in the audience. Bohr was not impressed. He raised his hand and said, "We in the audience are all agreed that your theory is crazy. But what divides us is whether your theory is crazy enough."      All the sane proposals for a theory of everything have been shown to be mathematically inconsistent. We are forced, in fact, to go to a higher theory, which unifies both general relativity and the quantum theory into a coherent whole. At present, the only (I repeat: only) candidate for a theory of everything is the superstring theory.      Superstring theory is certainly crazy enough. It postulates that the particles we see in the universe, including the atoms in our bodies, are composed of tiny, vibrating strings. The resonances or "notes" of the strings determine the particle zoo (electrons, quarks, photons, etc.). The universe is a symphony of vibrating strings, and the laws of harmony are the known laws of physics.      Einstein once asked the question, "Did God have any choice in making the universe?" Apparently not. The principles of general relativity and the quantum theory are so alien to each other that any theory that melds them into a coherent whole must not only have enormous power, it must also be highly constrained. A theory of everything must reproduce Einstein's theory of gravity at large distances, it must reproduce the quantum theory of particles at small distances, and it must be (we believe) conceptually simple. These conditions are so stringent that there may be only one solution to them.      What is surprising, however, is that superstring theory is so constrained that it fixes the dimension of space and time to be 10. The unique feature of superstring theory is that these tiny strings (about 100 billion billion times smaller than a proton) can only vibrate in 10-dimensional space-time.      Mystics, philosophers, and science-fiction writers have always been fascinated by higher dimensions. But we now have a mathematical reason for believing in 10-dimensional space-time, for it is only in a 10-dimensional universe that we have enough room to accommodate both the quantum theory and Einstein's theory. (If we write superstring theories in, say, 12 or 13 dimensions, the theory becomes mathematically inconsistent. A universe starting out in these dimensions is apparently unstable and will decay to 10 dimensions.)      This gives us a startling new picture of quantum cosmology. These bubble universes are actually 10-dimensional bubbles, but they are unstable. Our bubble, soon after its creation, fissioned in half, into four- and six-dimensional universes. The six- dimensional universe collapsed, these dimensions are so curled up (they are 10 trillion trillion times smaller than an atom) that we can't see them. But the collapse of the six-dimensional universe allowed our four-dimensional universe to expand, giving us the expanding universe that we see today. The expanding universe is a byproduct of a much more cataclysmic event, the shattering of 10-dimensional space-time.      This also means that bubbles might exist that fission into 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9 dimensions. However, one can show that these bubbles are probably not compatible with life. Physics tells us that stable solar systems, atoms, and protons can probably exist only in our four-dimensional universe. Our universe is probably four-dimensional because if it weren't, we wouldn't be here to debate the question in the first place.      TESTING THE UNTESTABLE      There is a fundamental difference between religious mythology and quantum cosmology. Mythology makes no pretense of being scientific; it fails the test of being falsifiable, there is no experiment that can rigorously exclude the possibility of miracles, angels, and the like, which are not (by definition) reproducible. Quantum cosmology, however, may eventually be verified or falsified. But we do not have to wait until we fall into a parallel universe to test these ideas.      For example, the COBE satellite detected tiny ripples in the otherwise uniform microwave background radiation. This is significant, because these ripples most likely correspond to quantum fluctuations that existed at the instant of the big bang. We are, in fact, children of these ripples. The quantum fluctuations at the beginning of time gradually grew in size over billions of years, becoming the galaxies, stars, and planets that we see today.      Other tests of this scenario may come from dark matter. Numerous observations have verified the existence of a mysterious, invisible form of matter that makes up perhaps 90 percent of the mass of the universe. For example, our own galaxy cluster, the Local Group, would have disintegrated billions of years ago if it weren't held together by enormous quantities of unseen matter. One of the leading candidates for dark matter is a new form of matter called sparticles (short for super particles), which are some of the lowest frequency vibrations of the superstring. Early in the next century, we should be able to identify the precise nature of dark matter, which in turn should verify or rule out many of the conjectures in superstring theory and quantum cosmology.      Looking further ahead, we may one day even detect a new form of relic radiation left over from the big bang, the neutrino background (see "Curtains at the Edge of the Universe," November 1995). If this notoriously elusive radiation can be detected, then we will have a snapshot of the universe when it was only 3 seconds old. Then ripples on the neutrino background will give us a breathtaking look into the cosmic fireball itself, when quantum fluctuations created by the superstring were the dominant forces shaping cosmic expansion.      The next century should be an exciting one as astrophysicists probe the nature of dark matter and the microwave and neutrino background. What they find will tell us much about the first instant of creation and perhaps confirm the existence of other universes.      So what's the farthest object in the multiverse? Probably something floating in a bubble-universe and dimension far, far away. As the British philosopher J.B.S. Haldane once said, "The universe is not only queerer than we suppose, but queerer than we CAN suppose."      Michio Kaku (MKAKU@aol.com) is professor of theoretical physics at the City University of New York. He is the cofounder of string field theory, and he is the author of the bestseller HYPERSPACE: A SCIENTIFIC ODYSSEY THROUGH PARALLEL UNIVERSES, TIME WARPS, AND THE 10TH DIMENSION (Oxford University Press/Anchor Books), 1994.

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